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Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural-Ecological Theory of School Performance with Some Implications for Education

Non-Immigrant Minorities view schooling as one-way assimilation or acculturation into a dominant group. Because of this, they consciously or unconsciously resist schooling. There are many ways this may manifest:

• From their frame of reference, they are in the same stratification system as the majority group but are also aware of their own job or achievement ceiling. You cannot “make it” by following the same rules as the majority group so you begin to internalize discrimination and exploitation.
• Recognize that the demeaning experience, lack of opportunities, and generally unsatisfactory life situation are due to the dominant group’s exploitation and not something inherently wrong with them.
• No other options as going back is not a real option (e.g. Americo-Liberians after American Civil War)
• May equate schooling with dominant culture and are thus opposed (feeling that you have to choose between success in “the white way” vs affiliation with own group)
• View education as desirable & important for advancement, so believe that it will improve societal status & lead to better jobs
• Receive contradictory messages growing up (hearing their parents’ words and overt encouragement vs. parents’ experiences and subtle messages)
  • May blame the system for parents’ and own failure; Become fatalistic, distrustful, and disillusioned by society

Immigrant Minorities view schooling as an alternate way of thought that they can take learnings from.

• Different frame of reference: consider themselves better off than before or than group back in home country
• Don’t place themselves within the country’s stratification system:
  • view themselves as strangers outside the prevailing system;
  • may not understand or may even reject the dominant status system (different way of coping and different way of seeing society around them)
  • have not internalized discrimination
• Have a perception of choice: there's an option to go back at some point; you have control over your situation (ties to home country affect status perception)
• Group identity is not threatened (at least not to the same extent as a non-immigrant minority):
  • Belief that they can participate in two cultures simultaneously while switching between the two (don’t have to choose as they are not LOSING their culture in school)
• Schooling is perceived as an investment towards employment

Potential barriers to advancement:

• Inferior education given to immigrants (in most countries, school funding is national so immigrants might not realize or most funding in US comes from property taxes and drastically differs from area to area)
• Segregation (can impact ability to integrate into larger society)
• Jobs are not commensurate with education/experience